“Ability is what you're capable of doing. Motivation determines what you do. Attitude determines how well you do it.” -Lou Holtz
Expectancy
theory is described as a motivation theory based on the idea that work effort
is directed towards behaviours that people believe will lead to desired
outcomes (S. McShane; S. Steen, 2012; p132).
Expectancy (first-level)
= the belief that a particular
level of performance on a task can be achieve. For example "What is the
strength of the relationship between the effort I put forth and how well
I perform?" would be an example of an expectancy question.
Instrumentality (second-level) =
the likelihood that
achieving particular level of performance will lead to attractive
consequence. An example of an instrumentality question would be: "If I
produce more than anyone else in the plant, will I get a bigger raise? A
faster promotion?"
Valence=
the attractiveness of the first level and second
level outcome. An example of a valence question would be: "Do I want a
bigger raise? Is it worth the extra effort? Do I want a promotion?"
Determining Effort
An individuals effort depends on three factors;
1.E-to-P expectancy (effort to performance). This is the individual’s perceived
probability that his or her effort will result in a particular level of
performance. In some situations,
employees may believe that they can unquestionably accomplish the task. In other situations, they believe they expect
that even their highest level of effort will not be result in the desired
performance level.
2.P-to-
O expectancy (expectancy, performance to outcomes). This is the perceived probability that a
specific behaviour or performance level will lead to a particular outcome. In extreme cases, employees may believe that
accomplishing a particular task will definitely result in a particular outcome,
or they may believe that successful performance will have no effect on this
outcome.
3.Outcome
valences (expectancy and outcome valences).
A valence is the anticipated satisfaction or dissatisfaction that an
individual feels toward an outcome. It
ranges from negative to positive (-1 to +1 or from -100 to +100). An outcomes valence represents a person’s
anticipated satisfaction with the outcome.
Outcomes have a positive valence when they are consistent with our
values and satisfy our needs; they have a negative valence when they oppose our
values and inhibit need fulfillment. (S.
McShane; S. Steen, 2012; p132).
Supporters of Expectancy
theory praise the clear guidelines that the theory provides for increasing
employee motivation.
Increasing
E-to- P Expectancies
E-to-P expectancies are
influenced by the individual’s belief that he or she can successfully complete
the task. Some companies increase this perception
by assuring employees that they have the necessary competencies, clear role
perceptions, and necessary resources to reach the desired levels of
performance. An important part of this
process involves matching employees’ competencies to job requirements and
clearly communicating the tasks required for the job. Also, E-to-P expectances are learned, so
behavioural modelling and reinforcement will strengthen an individuals’ belief
that they are able to perform the task.
(S. McShane; S. Steen, 2012; p133).
Practical
applications for this method are as follows;
-
Select
people with the required skills and knowledge.
-
Provide
required training and clarify job requirements.
-
Provide
sufficient time and resources.
-
Assign
simpler or fewer tasks until employees can master them.
-
Provide
examples of similar employees who have successfully performed the task.
-
Provide
coaching to employees who lack self-confidence.
Increasing
P-to-O Expectances
P-to-O expectancies should
be measured to gage employee performance accurately and distribute more valued
rewards to those with higher job performance.
P-to-O expectancies are perceptions, so employees also need to believe
that higher performance will result in higher rewards. Also, they need to know how that connection
occurs, so leaders should use examples, anecdotes, and public ceremonies to
illustrate when behaviour has been reward.
(S. McShane; S. Steen,
2012; p133).
Practical applications for
this method are as follows;
-
Measure
job performance accurately.
-
Clearly
explain the outcomes that will result from successful performance.
-
Describe
how the employee’s rewards were based on past performance.
-
Provide
examples of other employees whose good performance has resulted in higher rewards.
Increasing
Outcome Valences
Organizational leaders need
to find ways to individualize rewards or, where standard rewards are necessary,
to identify rewards that do not have a negative valence for some staff. For example, it will not motivate an employee
who takes the bus to work for environmental reasons to be rewarded with the
“company car”. (S. McShane; S. Steen, 2012; p133).
Practical applications for
this method are as follows;
-
Distribute
rewards that employee’s value.
-
Individualize
rewards.
-
Minimize
the presence of countervalent outcomes.
-
Beware
of countervalent outcomes that might cancel out a positive outcomes.
Overall, expectancy theory
is a useful model that explains how people rationally figure out the best direction,
intensity, and persistence of effort. It
has been tested in a variety of situations and predicts employee motivation in
different cultures. However, there are critics
who take issue with how the theory has been tested. Another concern is that expectancy theory
ignores the role of emotions on employee effort and behaviour. The valence element of expectancy theory
captures some of this emotional process but not enough. (S. McShane; S. Steen,
2012; p134).
So what does this all mean for training programs?
1. Trainees must believe that there is a high probability
that they will be able to learn the training material and fulfill the training
objectives (high expectancy)
2. Learning the training material and using it on the job
must result in consequences (high instrumentality) that are attractive to the
trainees (high valence of second-level outcomes)
Here is an example to help you see the expectancy theory in practice:
Example from: http://www.examstutor.com/business/resources/studyroom/people_and_organisations/motivation_theory/5-vroomsexpectancytheory.php
Essentially, for a training program to be successful, an employee
must want to complete the training, and must believe that the rewards for
completing the training are worthwhile.
Source:
McShane,Steen, S. (2012). Canadian Organizational Behaviour (8th edition) McGraw-Hill Ryerson.
Saks, A. M., & Haccoun, R. R. (2010). Managing
performance through training and development. (Fifth ed.). Toronto: Nelson
Education Ltd.
